1Department
of Food Science and Technology,
University of Sri Jayewardenepura,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
*Corresponding author:vindikal@gmail.com,
OPEN ACCESS
PEER-REVIEWED
Received June 05, 2015; Revised June
22, 2015; Accepted July 05, 2015
Abstract
Traceability practices and
their compliances in low grown orthodox black tea manufacturing process were
examined, while proposing possible solutions for identified major drawbacks.
The physical traceability in supply chain was considered one step forward and
one step backward from the point of manufacturing, starting from auction/buyer
back to supplier. Randomized stratified sampling was used. The traceability was
evaluated using a checklist, end product sampling, open ended interviews,
observations and internal document studies. The orthodox process was more
complicated unlike other production processes due to the different separation
techniques employed for grading and variety of grades produced because the
sifting/grading was the key to number of different tea varieties. Major
traceability issues were observed in leaf collection and grading operations due
to complexity of separation through Myddleton, Chota, Michie and Winnower,
which reduced the specific amounts produced, where bulking and blending process
further extended complexity, while increasing the mixing of different made tea
together with increased number of suppliers. Considering 1st, 2nd, 3rd dhool and
big bulk with given separation techniques during grading; a single tea leaf
could pass many paths before it end up in a specific product due to weight,
size and shape of the leaf of a shoot based on the way it was rolled in
orthodox rollers, where traceability up to tea bush, grading, blending and
traceability of sample back to supplier was not fully complying. Nevertheless,
supplier records, traceability after packing, traceability at dispatch and
after dispatch were in full compliance, and other factors had varying degree of
traceability compliances which make the compliances unachievable. Alternatively,
if made tea is considered as bulk material, use of emerging technologies like
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags or/and DNA barcoding may be
potential tools in rectifying such drawbacks and further research is needed to
assess their efficacy in the field.
Key Words: Orthodox Black
Tea, Manufacturing, Traceability, Compliance, Myddleton Shifter, Supplier,
Grading, Dhool.
1. Introduction
Tea was known as a beverage at least for over 5000
years, it was initially considered as a medicine and later grew into a beverage
which finally became the most popular beverage in the world or the second most
important drink after water [1]. According to the Chinese legends, tea was
first discovered in the time of Second Emperor and herbalist, Shennong in 2737
B.C.E, accidently when a dried tea leaf was fallen into the boiling water which
was intended for quenching emperor’s thirst; who drank boil water as a habit,
while he was travelling to another region.
The commercial planting of tea in Sri Lanka was
introduced by a Scotsman, James Taylor in 1867 [2]. Since then the Ceylon Tea
has been the world’s number one brand for over a century and the local tea industry
has made a significant growth over the time while securing its position in the
global market as a leading producer and exporter of high quality black tea. In
terms of international trade, tea is one of the major export revenue earners
for the country, where thousands of lives are depending on it directly or
indirectly. In 2007, Sri Lanka was the
fourth-largest tea-producing country according to global production statistics
and the country has produced 318,470 tons of tea which contributed nearly 9.1%
of the world’s total tea production [3].
Nevertheless, country has dedicated over 221,000
hectares or approximately 4% of the total land area for tea cultivation [4].
Accordingly, Sri Lankan tea plantations can be categorized as large plantations
as well as smallholdings and there are approximately 118,274 hectares of
smallholdings with 397,223 smallholdings [5] out of the total land cultivated;
around 43% is managed by the corporate sector, with a production of about 35%,
while the balance of 57% is in the smallholder sector, with a production of 65%
of the total. The average productivity in the smallholder sector is
substantially higher, at about 1,853 kg/ha compared to the corporate sector
productivity of 1,459 kg/ha [6]. The production grows at an annual rate of
around 10% [7] while current average production amounted around 328 million
kilograms in 2012 with majority of black tea. The annual production contributed
from 14 tea growing districts of the country with figures of low grown 62%,
mid-grown 16% and high grown 22% respectively, while 99% of the produce was
black tea out of which 92% of the produce were accounted as orthodox black tea
and 7% was accounted as CTC (cut, tear and curl) [5].
Considering current trends in export market, tea is
moving worldwide as a healthy beverage which has advantages of availability but
disadvantage of complex supply chains. Today global food competition is more
intense where stakeholders started to adapt their mind sets toward a more
holistic approach on supply chain management while focusing on food safety and
traceability in a farm-to-fork perspective [8] because food industry has
drastically changed during recent decades [9]. Nevertheless, many governments
are improving food safety measures to safeguard their citizens by increasing
control at all stages of food production, processing and distribution with
hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) and traceability based food
safety management systems (FSMS) such as ISO 22000: 2005. According to Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, traceability requirements are
gaining significance in the global tea economy, with the potential for
significant impacts on the world’s tea producers, which is expected that the
demand for traceability will result in widespread industry restructuring, which
will require institutional responses within each of the major tea-producing
regions [10]. The traceability is used as a tool to track product movement
through manufacturing and distribution chain up to end user and backward to raw
material supplier. Today consumer safety is the firm concern, which is a matter
of cooperation between all actors involved in food supply chain rather than a
confrontation; with the sharing of information, use of common standards and languages
to pinpoint the food safety issues [11].
Concern over food safety is becoming central to supply
chain restructuring in tea. Due to the costs, sampling and methodological
constraints associated with the monitoring of finished food products, there is
a trend towards preventing contamination at source through monitoring of estate
and factory processes. This is associated with traceability based food safety management
systems such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP), ISO 22000 and HACCP certification. The second driver of traceability is
consumer demands for independent verification that teas have been produced in
the absence of abusive labour practices, by respecting worker rights and
providing a living wage to smallholders, and by not polluting the environment
or threatening biodiversity [10].
According to the ISO 9001:2000 standard, traceability
is defined as “The ability to trace the history, application or location of
product or service that is under consideration”[12], which is a process that makes it possible to
find the traces of the various steps (manufacturing steps, sources of its raw
materials with relevant suppliers, controls and tests carried out) and
locations (storage locations, equipments
used to manufacture or handle it, direct customers and end users) a product has
passed through from its creation through to its final disposal [11].
Traceability requirements in food supply chain due to consumer concerns were
started to rise in the later part of nineteenth century with the discoveries of
microbes as well as vitamins which were further increased due to the
development of supply chains followed by the improved production methods [13].
The product traceability is the ability to follow the food movement through
specified stages of production, processing and distribution in one step forward
and backward at any given place of the food supply chain, while facilitating
efficient product recall in the event of hazard left the production facility. As a result of global, integrated partner
oriented approach throughout food supply chain, every operator must identify
their product in a unique way while recording their destinations with the links
between incoming and outgoing products as well as end users on databases [11].
Further, product traceability helps to determine the
origin of a food safety problem and to comply with legal requirements while
meeting consumers’ expectations for the safety and quality of purchased
products [14]. The aim of all these measures is to safeguard consumers from
biological, chemical and physical hazards that may be present in food while
implementing full traceability in food supply chains. According to the
Kelepouris et al. [15], Morrison [16], Van Dorp [17] Viaene & Verbeke [18]
full traceability or traceability throughout entire supply chain is essential
for ensuring food safety and quality which was mainstream requirement to regain
or maintain consumer confidence, where traceability cannot improve food safety
or quality itself although it can provide necessary information and keep track
of product movements [19].
Considering the complex nature of tea supply chain as
well as the complex manufacturing operations involved in the tea industry, it
is very difficult to identify the movement of a given supplier’s raw material
throughout the production process at a single glance. It was rarely discussed
subject in many researches, where black tea’s health benefits, chemical
structures, disease prevention etc., has been extensively studied by many
researchers. The existing manufacturing processes are also very old when
compared to most of the modern food industries where traceability was not a
major concern over a century. Hence the
propose of this study was to find out the major drawbacks in the area of
traceability by analyzing factors
affecting the traceability process in orthodox black tea manufacturing and to
find out possible solutions to the issues identified in the study.
2. Materials
& Methods
The project designed to evaluate the problem areas of
the tea manufacturing process related to the food safety applications and then
to find out reliable solutions with minimizing or eliminating the existing
complications through Pareto principle. The sampling plan was randomized stratified
sampling, with the use of Factory Information.xls provided by the Sri Lanka Tea
Board which was used to select tea factories based on the availability or
non-availability of food safety or quality assurance certifications from the
low grown orthodox black tea manufacturing industries. The most prominent area was the Southern
province while Galle, Matara and Rathnapura districts were set as major target
areas for the project execution due to the fact that most of the orthodox black
tea factories were located in these areas and the easy access as well as
shorter distances between factories, where concentration of factories were
high. The project has two phases for execution and sample size for each phase
was 30 factories where phase II was focused mostly on the factories which have
ISO 22000/ISO 9001/HACCP systems or Good Manufacturing Practices with Japanese
5S implementations. However, there are number of tea factories which have
abandoned the implemented food safety management systems due to various
reasons, where additional priority was given to understand the problems they
faced, that led to abandoning as well as to find out the remaining practices
and their efficacy.
The first stage was completed with gap analysis to evaluate
the basic major issues which has more impact on food safety and the product
quality with the evaluation of 25 tea factories that have not implemented ISO
22000/HACCP food safety management system (FSMS). The second stage was designed
based on the output of the first stage audits, where another set of 20
factories were analyzed and which have ISO 22000 FSMS/HACCP or previously
implemented but currently abandoned. The audits had two dimensions where first
major audit was targeted to identify the issues prevailing in the food safety
management systems and their supporting documents while second objective was to
find out traceability of the manufacturing process as a part of generic model
development. The internal audits were designed based on ISO 22000 food safety
management system requirements and root cause analysis carried out at the gap
analysis stage which pointed out the issues in industry as well as strategic
approaches to the problems identified while traceability was a major concern
from the gap analysis.
In addition to the gap analysis and internal audits
conducted in stage I and stage II, separate traceability study was carried out
in parallel to the stage I and II to understand the traceability applications
and practices in tea industry using over 40 tea factories with or without ISO
22000 or HACCP FSMS or ISO 9001 QMS. The selected factories were evaluated
based on the visits made in parallel to gap analysis carried out at phase I and
internal audits conducted in phase II. Required data was collected through
standard check list followed by open ended discussions. A traceability exercise
was conducted for a selected made tea sample, practically trying to trace back
green leaf supplier for selected sample with the help of available documents/records
and employees working on relevant processing areas.
The two testing criteria were common for all the
factories evaluated and special attention was given to the factories which were
currently practicing ISO 22000/ISO 9001/HACCP systems or previously followed even
though the certifications were expired. The checklist was prepared considering
the various standard requirements of traceability.
The results of the study were analyzed using MINITAB 17
Version and 1-Proportion test was applied for the results at 0.05 significant
levels. Hypotheses were built based on the proportion of factories which were
complied with traceability factors and results were separately analyzed for
every factor.
3. Results and
Discussion
According to the evaluations carried out, over 45
factories were observed and complete data was observed on 40 factories with or
without ISO 22000, HACCP or ISO 9001 certifications. The traceability was
evaluated using a checklist, end product sampling, open ended interviews,
observations, and internal document studies in all the tea factories. As to the
results, traceability was found in place up to a certain extent in all the tea
manufacturing processes from one step forward. It was mostly limited to the
made tea up to auctioneer or the wholesale buyer after completion of the
manufacturing process, where made tea could be traced from manufacturer through
product coding, manufacturing date, brand, and name of the manufacturer up to
auction and through auction records purchaser can be located.
According to the CBI, the consumer markets were
dominated by the popular blended brands which can contain up to 36 different
types of tea varieties that were blended in the consuming country to ensure the
unique taste of their brand at a competitive price where tea buyers source
different teas from around the world mainly China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka [1].
Accordingly, buyers blend tea after purchasing according to their brand’s
requirements depending on the market and cost. Therefore, the process was
complex and the traceability will lead to a bunch of manufacturers rather than
a single manufacturer.
Thus rest of the traceability was not studied because
most of the purchases were export oriented and it was beyond the research
objectives. However, that can be traced up to the consumer since no processing was
involved other than blending, repacking or value addition according to the
consumer preferences. Thus traceability
of a product complains can be elaborate as consumer claim to retailer, who
claim to wholesaler and who will then inform the buyer through auctioneer and
the manufacturer. If there is a product recall, the same channel can be used
vice versa.
Figure 1. Constraints and Compliances of Traceability in Low Grown Orthodox Black Tea Supply Chain
The results of the study was given in the bar chart above (figure 1), which illustrate the traceability practices as well as the achievements in the factory flow level. Further to the results obtained traceability up to tea bush, traceability in grading, traceability in blending and traceability of sample back to the supplier wasn’t fully complying according the study sample (p < 0.05). On the other hand, supplier records, traceability after packing, traceability at dispatch and traceability after dispatch was fully traceable or all the tea factories were in compliance with these four factors (p = 1) . As a rule of thumb, other factors had varying degree of traceability compliances, which indicated that those areas were more or less neglected but it was not impossible. The figure 02 below shows the probability of implementation and it further prove that what were already implemented and what was not achieved due to explained reasons or neglected according to the representative sample.
Figure 2. Implementation Probability of Traceability in Low Grown Orthodox Black Tea Supply Chain
When considering traceability in one step backward, none of the bought leaf based tea factories were able to exactly locate the farmer or the field where green leaves were harvested. Large estates were able to locate the field of the harvesting carried out, but they also unable to locate the records of exact tea bush or the labourer who harvested a given green leaves which mostly process in their own production facility. On the other hand, smallholder suppliers were more critical because their leaves were mixed each other while collecting and transport, where traceability was only possible up to a bunch of suppliers.
Bearing in mind the traceability up to tea bush which was the primary objective, a quantity of 4.50 – 4.65 kg of green leaves were required to manufacture 1kg of made tea (final product) [20]. 1kg of green leaves were to be harvested from 20 - 30 tea bushes with average yield where it is extremely difficult or almost impossible to practically locate the exact tea bush in the case of a product complain or hazard occurrence. The most possible paper based system could reach the leaf collectors or bunch of suppliers approximately, but it was impossible to locate the exact supplier or tea bush who contributes to the issue. Thus one-step backward traceability in orthodox black tea manufacturing was rarely achieved due to following reasons in smallholder suppliers. Most of the suppliers were smallholders who had less than one hectare of lands, which produce less than a single roll charge in a one supply of green leaves. It was usually varying around 3 – 15 suppliers at a time. Tea cultivation requires a relatively small investment, and the risk of complete crop failure is low. Problematic issues for smallholders producing bulk tea products include low farm gate prices, poor extension services and limited marketing channels [1]. As a result, their tea leaves were mostly collected through leaf collectors. According to keleporis et al, successful implementation of supply chain traceability calls for cooperation among all the stakeholders of the supply chain [15]. According to the interviews conducted, leaf collectors were not educated enough by manufacturers to keep traceability records. On the other hand, cost of additional labour and transport was high, where leaf collectors were operating at little margins. Nevertheless, leaf collectors as well as factory employees also believe that tea leaves are a uniform and homogenous raw material; origin in similar fields which cannot be distinguished each other very easily. Thus it was very difficult to motivate them to practice traceability in supply chain, where extreme competition for leaves in the market has the bargaining power for them to change the manufacturer at any time without notice.
After withering during release to the rolling process, small quantities were bulked or large quantities segregate to make a single batch of size about 250kg depending on the dryer capacity, which was call the charge, [21] and this activity increased the mixing of direct smallholder suppliers as well as leaf collectors. According to the study sample (as shown in the figure 1 – traceability compliance), 18 factories maintain collector bulks with identification tags (p > 0.05), thus the leaf could be traced with time records backward to leaf collectors as well as bunch of smallholder suppliers at a given date but it was impossible to trace up to the exact supplier or the tea bush. The same leaves could be traced forward through rolling, fermentation, drying up to fiber removal, easily with time records when the production was arranged in such a way.
Typically, orthodox black tea manufacturing process was much more complicated unlike other production processes (e.g. CTC) due to the different separation techniques employed as well as the number of different varieties produced. Hence, most critical part of the tea traceability systems was to trace the product within the manufacturing process. The sifting/grading was the key to number of different tea varieties and ungraded dry tea leaves initially pass through Myddleton after fiber removal. According to Samaraweera, the Myddleton bubble tray stalk extractor has an oscillation motion of 200 to 220 oscillations per minute of two aluminum bubble trays with perforations where bubbles impart a string action at the bottom of the layer which makes long particles such as fibers or stalk to float. It helps small and round particles to settle at the bottom of the layer while top particles to fall through perforations. To achieve this action, it must be feed with a continuous thick layer without exposing the bubbles, which will sort the stalky long leaf portion by passing through a tray that is used to separate long leaf particles and stalks at the beginning of the sorting process [21].
Thereafter, Chota and Michie shifters were used to separate uniform sizes and then to different varieties. Michie oscillatory shifters were equipped with one or two trays stacked one on top the other with a slight slopes towards forward direction that gives oscillatory motion on the vertical plane which help particles to jump forward at 250 to 260 oscillations per minute. Michichi shifter was used to separate long and wiry particles which were basically used to produce long leaf and wiry grades [21]. After separations, semi graded tea was then passed through a winnower to separate according to the weight. The winnower is used to separate light tea particles such as flakes, fibers, tea fluff and extraneous matters such as sand or dirt [21].
However, this process was very complicated and very difficult to understand easily for an average person. Considering 1st dhool, 2nd & 3rd dhool as well as the big bulk, given generic process flowcharts (figure 3, 4 and 5 below) were drawn where it was obvious that single tea leaf could pass many paths before it end up in a specific product due to the weight, size and the shape of the leaf of a shoot based on the way it was rolled in the orthodox rollers.
On the other hand, consider the same leaf if it broken to small sizes and large sizes they normally end up in two different grades. The same shoot’s tender leaves will mostly end up in first grades while matured low weight leaves will mostly end up in second grades based on the weights. Considering the complexities involved, the figures 3, 4, and 5 shows the number of different grades produced in a given dhool. It was almost 32 for a first dhool (figure 3) considering the generic processes without 2nd or 3rd grade products where their sizes were different from one another as well as different parts of the tea shoot.
This phenomenon was almost same for all the dhools where it wasn’t a very easy process to keep records of the product movement. Nevertheless, the second grades were much less discussed in the orthodox black tea manufacturing process but those amounts were also massive and their movements were never recorded in the industry on accurate manner, where the existing traceability practices were not complete. The existing systems had introduced various documents to keep traceability tracks on the product movements, but none of them were able to comply with the theoretical traceability requirements according to the definition of traceability [12].
According to the given process flow diagrams below, one tea leaf might pass many times through Myddleton, Michie and Winnower as well as the Colour Sorter before it reached the final grade. Some leaves may recycle the same path again and again with mixing new coming ungraded teas such as throughput of 5mm Myddleton which go back again to Chota (red line – figure 3, 4 and 5) and passing through same sieves before end up in a final grade. On the other hand, each time the product went through winnower, based on the weight; it separates the product into 1st grade, 2nd grade, 3rd grade and fiber while removing stones and other extraneous particles and reducing the bulk into small quantities. 1st grade was proceed with next steps of manufacturing process, while 2nd and 3rd grades were followed separate pathways which generates second quality tea products which were usually called second selling mark products. Considering 1st dhool, 2nd dhool, 3rd dhool and big bulk, when each of these process flowcharts were equally complicated and largely distributed, it was very difficult to follow a paper based or even a digital method to track down the traceability of a specific tea leaf.
Due to the continuous feeding and requirement of uniform thickness in Middleton shifter; batches couldn’t be separated accurately rather than guessing. Thus there must be number of documents and complex storing systems to identify different batches as well as batchwise separation techniques which will add more cost to the production. While dried tea was passing through shifters within grading room operations, the same bulk was separated into small different grades based on leaf size, type, dhool, weight and buyer requirements where orthodox black tea has around 30 different grades basically which further creates issues in reaching the initial leaf supplier.
Figure
3 – Graphical
representation of generic process
flow chart for the 1st
Dhool sifting program
of orthodox black tea
Figure
4 – Graphical
representation of generic process
flow chart for the 2nd & 3rd Dhool sifting program of
orthodox black tea
Figure
5 – Graphical
representation of generic process
flow chart for the Big Bulk sifting program of orthodox black tea
There are various other processes involved, but these
processes were the major critical points for the traceability issues in
orthodox black tea manufacturing unlike the cut, tear and curl (CTC) process
where it is easily traceable due to non-complex process which give less
varieties as well as large quantities. In orthodox process, the output of a
single grade was small where several batches were required to prepare a
standard quantity for packing or as to buyer requirements, thus bulking is
needed.
Figure 6. A Typical Blending Operation
The blending (Figure 6) was carried out to give
specific product characteristics to a given tea product where different grades
are mixed together. Hence this process further increase the traceability issues
while increasing the number of raw material suppliers as well as individual tea
plants contributing to a given tea product. Nevertheless, these areas still can
be traceable with a proper organization of production flow and better recording
systems which was not available in any of the systems evaluated. The cost is
one of the major factors which decide the implementation of such measures,
because even though the factories are fully dedicated and implemented such
systems, the buyers do not pay attention to such efforts while they were
involved in purchasing. Thus it is inappropriate to request complete
treatability from manufacturers without providing solutions to the areas
mentioned in the study.
On the other hand, if orthodox black tea manufacturing
was considered as a bulk material, the traceability can be achieved with less hazardous
work load where bunch of suppliers or fields were the primary objective. Then paper based traceability systems can be
developed to trace single day’s production which can be more easily segregated
while storing and recording where it can be traced through grading and blending
up to packing. Nevertheless, it can be trace one step backward practically up
to bunch of suppliers through existing records while adding few new records
within grading operation from drier out to finished product packing. Rest of
the areas of manufacturing namely receiving, withering, rolling, fermenting and
drying can be managed through addition of time records or codes to the existing
food safety management systems.
Finally, if the cost is bearable to the consumer, DNA
barcoding is a widely used molecular-based system, which can identify
biological specimens, and is used for the identification of both raw materials
and processed food, which can be possible to employ to identify exact issue
concerning samples [22]. On the other
hand, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags also can be integrated to
track down the raw material movements as well as finish product by using the passive
RFID tags with the bulk storing bins from field to the factory and then after
drier moth to the packing since raw material and finish product both moved
within plastic crate which can be continually used with a reader. The passive
RFID tags are designed to depend on the tag reader as its power source where
reader unit can communicate with the tag within 6 meters which are low in
product cost and it is manufactured for disposal with disposable consumer
products [23]. Considering current developments in RIFD tags technology, it possibly
can be used in the complicated operations in orthodox black tea manufacturing
process to track down intermediate product movement within the factory
environment where the production should plan according to the requirements
while synergizing with existing paper based systems to make it workable.
However given model will be able to identify the traceability on the bulk
movement where individual supplier and the end user can be located. But these
technologies are not currently applied in tea trade where it will not guarantee
the accurate identification of exact tea bush in an event of hazard occurrence
which needs further research to explore the possibilities of exact application
of the given technologies.
Accordingly, the research recommends considering tea as
a bulk material like edible oils in the event of processing where it is really
practical to consider traceability after made tea left the factory and if there
is any food safety issue manufacturer has to address all the suppliers in the
supply chain and check their plantations for identification of abnormalities,
if necessary. If the made tea is considered as a bulk material, it will be
helpful to develop user friendly, realistic and practical paper based
traceability models which will not increase the product cost or unnecessary
documentation works for the quality assurance system operators.
4. Conclusion
As to the results, traceability was found in place up
to a certain extent in all the tea manufacturing processes from one step
forward. The research was limited to the made tea up to auctioneer or the
wholesale buyer after completion of the manufacturing process, where made tea
can be traced from manufacturer through product coding, manufacturing date,
brand, and name of the manufacturer up to auction and through auction records,
purchaser can be located.
When considering traceability in one step backward,
none of the brought leaf tea factories were able to exactly locate the farmer
or the field where green leaves were harvested. Large estates were able to
locate the field of the harvesting carried out, but they also unable to locate
the records of exact plant or the labourer harvested a given green leaves which
mostly process in their own production facility. On the other hand, smallholder
suppliers were more critical because their leaves are mix each other while
collecting and transport where only possible up to a bunch of suppliers.
Bearing in mind the traceability up to tea bush which was the primary
objective, a quantity of 4.50 – 4.65kg of tea leaves were required to
manufacture 1kg of made tea. 1kg of green leaves were to be harvested from 20 - 30 tea bushes with average yield where it was extremely difficult or almost
impossible to locate the exact tea bush in the case of a product complain or
hazard occurrence. The most possible paper based system could reach the leaf
collectors or bunch of suppliers approximately, but it was impossible to locate
the exact supplier who contributes to the issue or tea bush.
Typically, orthodox black tea manufacturing process was
much more complicated unlike other production processes due to the different
separation techniques employed as well as the number of different grades
produced. Thus most critical part of the tea traceability systems was to trace
the product within the manufacturing process. The sifting/grading was the key
to number of different tea varieties.
Considering 1st dhool, 2nd dhool, 3rd dhool and big bulk, when each of
these process flowcharts are equally complex and largely distributed, it is
very difficult to follow a paper based or even a digital method to track down
the traceability of a specific tea leaf.
According to the given results and the observations it was obvious that
orthodox black tea production process was very complicated, where it was
suitable to consider as a bulk material in the event of traceability which help
to develop user friendly traceability systems in orthodox black tea
manufacturing process. On the other hand, use of emerging technologies like
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags or/and DNA barcoding may be
potential tools in rectifying such drawbacks and further research is needed to
assess their efficacy in the field.
Considering all these factors, it was obvious that tea
traceability practices were very complicated to the manufacturer and product
was not priced considering these critical factors. Thus requesting traceability
from the consumer’s tea cup back to the tea bush that supplied green leaves to
produce the given made tea sample was not justifiable as well as very difficult
in the manufacturing process. However, educating all the stakeholders may help
to improve the traceability practices up to certain extent, but if the
manufacturer can increase the hygienic practices to improve the food safety of
the product, while educating all the stakeholders in supply chain that will be
more meaningful than considering the traceability as a critical buying factor due
to the complex processing nature of the product.
References
- CBI Market Channels and Segments for Tea ‘Your trade route through the European market’http://www.cbi.eu/system/files/marketintel_platforms/2013_market_channels_and_segments_tea_-_coffee_ tea_and_cocoa.pdf.
- Elliott, E. C. and Whitehead F.J: Tea planting in Ceylon. 1928
- Top 10 Tea Producing Countries. Available: http://www.toptenofcity.com/commerce/top-10-largest-tea-producing-countries.html. [Accessed 4th April 2014].
- Department of Census and Statistics, 2005 Census of Tea Small Holdings. Sri Lanka
- Karunaratne S., “Statistical Information on Plantation Crops - 2012” Ministry of Plantation Industries, Colombo, November 2013, p 1 - 68. Available: http://www.plantationindustries.gov.lk/ dwnlds/plantation/2012%20-%20Statistical%20 Information%20on%20Plantation%20Crops.pdf. [Accessed April 17, 2015]
- Munasinghe M., Deraniyagala Y and Dasanayake N.: SCI Research Study Report. : Economic, Social and Environmental Impacts and Overall Sustainability of the Tea Manufacturing Industry in Sri Lanka. May 2013. Available: http://www.sci.manchester.ac.uk/ sites/default/files/Economic,%20Social%20and%20Environmental%20Impacts%20and%20Overall%20Sustainability%20of%20the%20Tea%20Manufacturing%20Industry%20in%20Sri%20Lanka_0.pdf
- Department of Census and Statistics, 2012
- Helena L., Christina S. and Annika O.: Traceability in Food Supply Chain: Towards Synchronized Supply Chain. : Lund University Publications, 2008 September. Available at http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/1165966
- Stadig, M., Breg, B., Bergström, B., Janson, C.-G., Karlsson, R., Wiik, L., & Johnsson, M. Spårbarhet i Livsmedelskedjan, SIK, SIK-Dokument 161. 2002,
- FAO Traceability, Supply Chains and Smallholders: Case-Studies from India and Indonesia. Committee on Commodity Problems. Intergovernmental Group on Tea Seventeenth Session. 2006. p 1 – 21. Accessed on ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/011/j8316e.pdf
- Hand Book 7.1: Traceability and Labelling, Available at: http://pip.coleacp.org/files/documents/edes/publications/EDES%20fascicule%207-1_EN_web.pdf. [Accessed 04th January 2014]
- ISO 9001:2000 standard
- Popper, D.E., “Traceability: Tracking and privacy in the food system”, Journal of Geographical Review, Vol. 97, No.3, 2007. p. 365-389.
- UNEP. “Green Economy and Trade”: Green Economy Report’s Agriculture chapter 2. Available: http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/GETReport/pdf/Chapitre%202%20Agriculture.pdf, 2013. p 45 – 88.
- Kelepouris, T., Pramatari, K., & Doukidis, G. "RFID-enabled traceability in the food supply chain", Industrial Management + Data Systems, vol. 107, no. 2, 2007. p. 183.
- Morrison, C. "Traceability in food processing: an introduction," in Food authenticity and traceability, M. Lees, ed., Woodhead publishing limited, Cambridge, 2003. p. 459-471.
- Van Dorp, K.-J. "Beef labeling: The emergence of transparency", Supply Chain Management, vol. 8, no. 1, 2003. p. 32-40.
- Viaene, J. & Verbeke, W. "Traceability as a key instrument towards supply chain and quality management in the Belgian poultry meat chain", Supply Chain Management, vol. 3, no. 3, 1998 p. 139.
- Wang, X. & Li, D. "Value Added on Food Traceability: a Supply Chain Management Approach", 2006 IEEE International Conference on Service Operations and Logistics, and Informatics 2006. p. 493-498.
- Institute of Social Developments: SustainabiliTea, Report on Sri Lankan Tea Industry. Available: somo.nl/publications-en/Publication_3095/at_download /fullfile, January 2008.
- Samaraweera D. S. A., Chapter 20.: Technology of Tea Processing. : “Hand Book on Tea”, 2008. p 265 – 322,.
- Galimberti A., Mattia F D., Losa A., Bruni I., Federici S., Casiraghi M., Martellos S, Labra M.: “DNA barcoding as a new tool for food traceability”.: Food Research International 50 (2013) 55–63.: Elsevier Publications available at http://www.urbanbarcodeproject.org/images/pdf/SubstitutionInSea food.pdf
- Kevin Bonsor and Wesley Fenlon, How RFID Works: Available:http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high-tech-gadgets/rfid3.htm. [Accessed 25th June 2015].
No comments:
Post a Comment